... based on test scores of students unfair. Test items focus on a limited set of skills that are important in mainstream Western culture, and particularly in school settings; they do not necessarily tap into skills that may be more highly valued in other contexts or other societies. Also, students with limited English proficiency are at an obvious disadvantage when an intelligence test is administered in English. Some students (minority students who want to avoid "acting white") may not be motivated to perform at their best and so may obtain scores that underestimate their capabilities. Furthermore, some students (e.g., those from certain ethnic groups) may not be familiar with the question-answer format that predominates in a typical testing situation: others may continually respond with "I don't know" as a way of ending a seemingly unpleasant situation as quickly as possible. The last thing to consider is that the relationship between test ...

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