... which in 1913 celebrated 300 years as Russia's ruling dynasty. The notion of an absolute, divinely-appointed monarch still prevailed in Russia in the late nineteenth Century is a clear indication of how politically backward the country was in relation to the other major powers in Europe. It is true that many other states were monarchies but in each of them their had been significant moves towards parliamentary or representative government. Although Russia had been frequently and closely involved in European diplomatic and military affairs, she had remained outside the mainstream of European political thought. Progressive Tsars such as Peter 1 (1688-1725), Catherine 11 (1762-1796) and Alexander 11(1855-1881) had taken daring steps to modernise the country, but their reforms had not included the extension of political rights or freedoms. In Russia in 1881 it was still a criminal offence to oppose the Tsar or his government. There was no parliament, and political parties ...

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