... the form of an organisational and spiritual revival in reaction to the Kulturkampf. In this essay I shall attempt to outline some of the major precipitating factors of this culture struggle and asses the political, social and religious consequences of the Kulturkampf, which all had an extensive impact on Germany's development in the twenty-first century. A significant geopolitical cause of the Kulturkampf was the threat or fear of a Catholic crusade, derived largely from suspicion of the Catholic Church, its antiquated rituals and seemingly anti-nationalistic tendencies. Doctrinal Catholicism had become more fundamental, in reaction to rational criticism over the last half century, with orthodox Papal doctrinal writings such as the Papal Bull of Infallibility and the Syllabus of Errors. In these publications, Pope Pius IX had denounced modern civilisation and in the process appeared to confirm to Bismarck and the German state that the existence of Catholicism was detrimental to ...

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