... is because he is travelling abroad, but he saw Paul buying and walking a dog and consequently believes that Paul owns a dog. Logically, we can validly say that John knows that 'either Paul owns a dog or Edward is in New York' even though he has no idea where Edward is. Suppose however that the dog is not his, but a present for a friend, and also suppose that by luck Edward is in fact in New York. Therefore, in this scenario, John believes, with justification, a true proposition, but we would not want to say that he has knowledge. However, to try to circumvent this sort of counter example one could draw on a theory known as infallibilism. This states that 'if it is true that S knows p, then S cannot be mistaken in believing p', and therefore the justification for believing p guarantees its truth. In other ...

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